The Revolt of 1857 was the first major attempt by Indians to overthrow British rule. However, it failed due to a lack of unity and modern strategies. This failure highlighted the need for a more organized political movement, driven by new ideologies and modern methods of mobilization. As a result, the second half of the 19th century witnessed the rise of modern nationalism in India, with various political organizations playing a crucial role.
Factors Responsible for the Growth of Modern Nationalism
1. Political, Economic, and Administrative Unification
- Improved means of communication helped leaders from different parts of India connect.
- Economic policies linked various regions, creating common economic interests.
- A uniform system of administration fostered a sense of unity among Indians.
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2. Western Thought and Education
- British rule exposed Indians to Western ideas of democracy, liberty, and nationalism.
- Thinkers like John Stuart Mill, Rousseau, and Voltaire influenced Indian intellectuals.
- Modern education helped Indians understand colonial exploitation and demand rights.
3. Development of Indian Press and Literature
- Newspapers criticized British policies and spread nationalist ideas.
- Books like Anand Math by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee inspired patriotism.
- The press played a key role in uniting people against colonial rule.
4. Socio-Religious Reform Movements
- These movements aimed to eliminate social evils and uplift society.
- They helped remove the inferiority complex among Indians about their culture.
- Reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Swami Vivekananda inspired nationalism.
5. Rediscovery of India’s Past
- Archaeological discoveries highlighted India’s glorious past (e.g., Mauryan and Gupta Empires).
- Scholars like Max Muller and R.G. Bhandarkar emphasized India’s rich heritage.
- The Indo-Aryan theory strengthened national pride among educated Indians.
6. Influence of Contemporary Global Movements
- Nationalist struggles in Italy, Greece, and Ireland inspired Indian leaders.
- Many Latin American countries gained independence from colonial rule.
- These events demonstrated that colonial rule could be resisted and overthrown.
7. Understanding of Indian and Colonial Interests
- Indians realized that British economic policies caused poverty and famines.
- Dadabhai Naoroji’s Drain of Wealth theory exposed British exploitation.
- By the late 19th century, a strong nationalist critique of British rule emerged.
8. Reactionary British Policies and Racial Arrogance
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- Several British policies fueled nationalist sentiments:
- Arms Act (1878): Restricted Indians from possessing arms.
- Vernacular Press Act (1878): Censored Indian newspapers.
- Lowering of ICS exam age limit: Reduced opportunities for Indians.
- Delhi Durbar (1877): A grand celebration while millions suffered from famine.
- Ilbert Bill Controversy (1883-84): Exposed racial discrimination against Indians in judiciary matters.
Political organisation Before the Indian National Congress
Before the formation of the Indian National Congress (INC), several political associations emerged. These organizations laid the foundation for a nationwide political movement. Their primary objectives were to create political awareness, protest against unjust British policies, and demand reforms.
Major Political Associations in India
- Bangbhasha Prakashika Sabha (1836): Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s associates to discuss political issues.
- Zamindari Association/Landholders’ Society (1838): Formed by Dwarkanath Tagore to protect landlords’ interests.
- Bengal British India Society (1843): Raised awareness about governance and people’s rights.
- British Indian Association (1851): Merged Landholders’ Society and Bengal British India Society to demand reforms.
- Madras Native Association (1852): First political organization in Madras Presidency, led by Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty.
- Bombay Association (1852): First political body in Bombay Presidency, supported by Dadabhai Naoroji.
- Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1867): Founded by Mahadev Govind Ranade to bridge the gap between people and the government.
- Indian League (1875): Formed by Sisir Kumar Ghosh to spread political education and nationalistic sentiments.
- Indian Association of Calcutta (1876): Founded by Surendra Nath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose to unify Indians under a common political program.
- Madras Mahajan Sabha (1884): Established by M. Viraraghavachari and others to demand political reforms.
- Bombay Presidency Association (1885): Formed in response to British repressive policies.
Political Associations Outside India
- British India Society (1839, London): Founded by William Adam to make the British aware of India’s situation.
- East India Association (1866, London): Established by Dadabhai Naoroji to educate the British about Indian issues.
Formation of the Indian National Congress (INC)
By the late 19th century, conditions were ripe for the formation of an all-India political organization. A.O. Hume, a retired British officer, played a key role in bringing together Indian leaders to form the INC.
- First Session (1885): Held in Bombay and presided over by W.C. Banerjee. Attended by 72 delegates.
- Objectives of INC:
- Promote friendly relations among political workers from different parts of India.
- Create a common platform for nationalist demands.
- Build national unity irrespective of caste, religion, or region.
Controversies Regarding Its Origin
- Safety Valve Theory: Some believe the INC was created by the British to provide a peaceful outlet for Indian discontent.
- Lightning Conductor Theory: Historians argue that Indian leaders used A.O. Hume as a means to unite nationalist forces.
Moderate Phase of the Indian National Congress (1885-1905)
During the first 20 years, INC leaders adopted a moderate approach, believing in constitutional reforms and British goodwill. This period is known as the Moderate Phase.
Methods of Moderates:
- Used petitions, resolutions, pamphlets, and delegations to voice their demands.
- Relied on constitutional methods and avoided direct confrontation.
- Primarily represented the educated middle class.
Achievements of Moderates:
1. Constitutional Reforms:
- Pressured the British to pass the Indian Councils Act (1892), which slightly expanded legislative councils.
- Demanded self-government like Canada and Australia.
2. Economic Critique of British Rule:
- Exposed colonial exploitation (e.g., Drain of Wealth theory by Dadabhai Naoroji).
- Criticized economic policies that led to poverty and famine.
3. Protection of Civil Rights:
- Advocated for freedom of speech, press, and association.
- Fought against racial discrimination in administration.
4. General Administrative Reforms:
- Demanded better education, reduced land revenue, and improved labor conditions.
- Opposed excessive military expenditure and foreign wars.
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Limitations of Moderates:
- Movement was limited to urban, educated Indians.
- Relied on British goodwill, which proved ineffective.
- Failed to mobilize the masses, leading to the rise of extremist leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal.
The early political activities (1858-1905) laid the groundwork for India’s freedom struggle. Political associations created awareness, and the INC emerged as a strong national platform.
While the moderates made significant contributions, their limitations paved the way for a more radical and mass-based nationalist movement in the 20th century.
