By 1818, the British had consolidated their control over most of the Indian subcontinent, with only Punjab and Sindh remaining independent. Through a combination of diplomacy, war, and policies like the Doctrine of Lapse, the British systematically expanded their empire, culminating in the annexation of Sindh in 1843 and Punjab in 1849.
This period (1818-1857) is often described as an era of “deliberately manufactured annexations,” where strategic interventions, economic policies, and military campaigns were used to integrate Indian territories into the British Empire.
British Expansion: Policies and Strategies
The Charter Acts and Centralization
The Charter Acts of 1813 and 1833 played a crucial role in the colonization of India. The 1813 Act ended the East India Company’s trade monopoly in India but allowed it to retain its political functions. The 1833 Act further centralized administrative and legislative power under the Governor-General of India, effectively legalizing British colonization and allowing free settlement of Englishmen in India.
Download notes of Socio Religious Reform Movements
William Bentick’s Tenure (1828-1835): A Non-Aggressive Approach?
Lord William Bentick adopted a non-aggressive policy but still expanded British control through administrative and financial reforms. His tenure saw:
- Mahalwari revenue administration system (expanding British control over land revenue collection)
- Abolition of Sati and suppression of Thugee
- Introduction of the English language in administration and higher education
- End of Mughal coinage in 1835, symbolizing British dominance
Bentick’s tenure also saw attempts to strengthen relationships with buffer states like Sindh and Punjab, particularly in light of the potential Russian threat to British India.
The Annexation of Sindh
Background: British Interests in Sindh
The British initially sought commercial ties with Sindh in 1799 to counteract alliances between Napoleon, Tipu Sultan, and the Kabul Monarch. However, the Amirs of Sindh, who had gained control in the late 18th century under the Talpura dynasty, resisted British influence.
The Treaty of ‘Eternal Friendship’ (1809)
Amid growing fears of a French invasion through Russia, Lord Minto signed a treaty with the Amirs of Sindh, ensuring that both sides would exclude the French and exchange diplomatic agents. However, British interest in Sindh persisted due to its strategic location.
Lord Auckland’s Forward Policy
By 1838, under the pretext of protecting Sindh from Ranjit Singh of Punjab and Russian influence, the British signed a treaty making Sindh a British protectorate. This allowed for British intervention in disputes between the Amirs and the Sikhs.
Anglo-Afghan Relations and the First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-42)
The British sought a “scientific border” to defend India. Their unsuccessful attempts to control Afghanistan led to the annexation of Sindh. The Amirs, displeased by the presence of British troops and forced taxation, revolted but were easily defeated by Charles Napier.
In 1843, Governor-General Ellenborough merged Sindh into the British Empire, appointing Napier as its governor. The annexation was criticized as a pretext for British expansion.
The Annexation of Punjab
Rise of Sikh Power
Following the execution of Guru Gobind Singh and Banda Bahadur’s rebellion against the Mughals, the Sikh leadership consolidated power under the Dal Khalsa in the 18th century. The Marathas briefly controlled Punjab, but the decline of the Mughal Empire and Ahmad Shah Abdali’s invasions created a power vacuum.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh: The Unifier of Punjab
Ranjit Singh, leader of the Sukarchakiya Misl, established the Sikh Empire in 1801, with Lahore as its capital. His policies included:
- Marital Alliances: Strengthened his rule by marrying into powerful Sikh families.
- Military Alliances: Successfully defeated Afghan forces in Lahore and Amritsar.
- Diplomacy: Secured territories through treaties.
- Religious and Political Symbolism: Issued Nanak-Shahi coins to mark his rule.
British Relations and the Treaty of Amritsar (1809)
The British recognized Ranjit Singh’s control over Punjab, restricting his expansion south of the Sutlej River. However, British annexations in Sindh and Gwalior after his death in 1839 created tensions.
The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46)
The power vacuum after Ranjit Singh’s death led to political instability. The immediate causes of the war included:
- The British moving troops near Punjab’s borders.
- Suspicions over British expansionist policies.
- The Sikh army crossing the Sutlej River.
The war ended in a decisive British victory, with the Treaty of Lahore forcing Punjab to:
- Pay a war indemnity of one crore rupees.
- Cede Jalandhar Doab to the British.
- Accept a British Resident in Lahore.
- Place Daleep Singh on the throne under British supervision.
The Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49) and the Final Annexation of Punjab
The humiliation of the first war, British interference, and the inhumane treatment of Rani Jindan (Daleep Singh’s mother) led to another conflict.
Three major battles were fought:
- Battle of Ramnagar (Indecisive)
- Battle of Chillianwala (Sikh victory)
- Battle of Gujarat (British victory, leading to complete Sikh surrender)
In 1849, Punjab was annexed, bringing all of India under British rule.
Doctrine of Lapse and Further Annexations
Under Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856), the British aggressively expanded their control:
- Doctrine of Lapse: Indian states without direct male heirs were annexed, including Satara (1848), Jhansi (1853), and Nagpur (1854).
- Annexation of Awadh (1856): Justified under “misgovernance.”
These annexations contributed to the Revolt of 1857, as they alienated Indian rulers and elites.
Economic Impact of British Policies
- Destruction of Indian Textile Industry:
- British machine-made goods replaced Indian textiles.
- High export duties on Indian goods vs. duty-free British imports.
- Commercialization of Agriculture:
- Shift to cash crops (Indigo, Opium, Cotton) led to famine and economic distress.
- Farmers were often forced into unfavorable contracts (e.g., Indigo Revolt in Bengal).
Download notes of British Expansion in India
Scholars debate whether British expansion was accidental or intentional:
- Accidental View (John Seeley): British expansion was a byproduct of trade and internal Indian conflicts.
- Deliberate View: British administrators like Lord Wellesley and Dalhousie had a clear colonial agenda.
While early expansion may have been opportunistic, later annexations were systematic, calculated, and aggressive, making British control over India inevitable.
